The Roman Army’s effect on the growth of Roman territory and the strength of its leaders cannot be overstated.  Nor can the army’s impact on who ultimately ran the Republic and, later, the Empire.  Examples of the legions’ preparation and might can be found in numerous works.  In Tacitus’s, Annals, we get insight into the conditions they worked under and the excessive expectations that followed them throughout their careers.  In Josephus’ Jewish War, we find descriptions of their training and battle preparation.  Finally, by examining Vegetius, Military Epitome, we find details of their training and the discipline required in the ranks. Putting these texts together and analyzing the story of the army as a unit, down to the impact each soldier had will help demonstrate how influential the military was and its effect on Roman society, territory, and leadership.

     It was easy enough to see that the life of a soldier was not glamorous and not lucrative.  It was just a job.  A job forced on men who gained little in return.  The glory went to Emperors and leaders of the legions while the individual soldiers suffered. Tacitus describes the life of a soldier and how dismal that existence could be when he writes about their retirement, “And suppose that a man survived this multitude of hazards: he was dragged once more to the ends of the earth to receive under the name of a 'farm' some swampy morass or barren mountain-side”[1].  Obviously, the accounts of those who wrote for the emperors were not always truthful in depicting the rewards for those who served.  Tacitus goes on to say that “the whole trade of war was comfortless and profitless”[2] for the soldiers.  They were paid less than the Praetorian Guard who encountered the same or less danger.  The soldiers were also left to provide gratuity to their training camps and often outfit themselves accordingly, rarely leaving anything extra.  But this was the way.  Built upon this foundational philosophy of a soldier’s life was a great empire.  While the constant drill and never-ending expansion could easily discourage and hinder the army’s morale and growth, the mindset of the soldiers allowed them to overcome any mental deterrence.

     The attention to detail that the Roman army exercised left little to chance and mirrored the structure of the Empire from the top down, fully demonstrating the parallels of the army’s success and the Empire’s success.  Josephus describes how every aspect of the preparation was considered and how the camps were actually small, self-sustaining societies.  Josephus describes the preparation as soon as the army moved into an area, “for as soon as they have marched into an enemy’s land, they do not begin to fight till they have walled their camp about; nor is the fence they raise rashly made”[3].  This may seem of little consequence, but Josephus describes what made the army so formidable from its very foundation. In strengthening the empire, an opponent would rarely be able to make advances into a Roman area that was not wholly fortified and able to hold its position for a long period of time.  The soldiers brought with them small Roman societies with formidable perimeters to both “annoy the enemy”[4] and maintain central control by the generals and continued training for the legion.  The discipline of every action goes down to the most minute detail.  Josephus elaborates on this by writing, “Their times also for sleeping, and watching, and rising, are notified beforehand by the sound of trumpets, nor is anything done without such a signal”[5].  With the expansion and influence of Rome, those territories absorbed were left to live in obedience because the conquering forces instilled fear of not staying in line.  And while that may seem overly harsh, consider that the soldiers themselves fell under similar boundaries, so much so that they maintained the same strength in discipline they had experienced on those they had conquered.  Josephus supports this by saying, “Now they so manage their preparatory exercises of their weapons, that not the bodies of the soldiers only, but their souls may also become stronger; they are moreover hardened for war by fear.”[6]  Even when the monetary costs and loss of life proved concerning for the soldiers, they grudgingly carried on.  Rome’s government and Emperors understood the importance of proper preparation and use of fear and punishment to keep their territories in line.  It was the same process used for control in the army.  But while the army was in and of itself the weapon and enforcement arm of Rome’s dominance, the army understood what it could do to help control Emperors and the Senate too.  The relationship was symbiotic.  Rome understood its need for the army and the army understood Rome’s need of it to provide expansion, slaves and the spoils of war.

     Finally, it is important to understand how the intense and constant training of the army led to its power from the inside.  In Vegetius’ writings, we can see how the continuous drills and expectation of discipline within the Roman forces were maintained.  In his writing of Military Epitome, he starts by writing, “Victory in war does not depend entirely upon numbers or mere courage; only skill and discipline will ensure it”[7].  This statement alone supports the over-arching idea and firm belief that Rome’s success was a direct byproduct of its preparation and training.  Furthermore, Vegetius compares the preparation and success of Rome’s army to those it conquered when he says, “The courage of a soldier is heightened by his knowledge of his profession, and he only wants an opportunity to execute what he is convinced he has been perfectly taught. A handful of men, inured to war, proceed to certain victory, while on the contrary, numerous armies of raw and undisciplined troops are but multitudes of men dragged to slaughter”[8].  So, while the soldier may sometimes feel the monotony of continuous training may serve as only a tedious and repetitive exercise, he immediately sees, when called on to act, that he is ready and every possible situation has been addressed and trained for.  As an empire, Rome counted on this execution and rarely exercised any campaign without knowing the military representation in that area had been prepared for every eventuality.  Rome counted on their legions being better prepared than their enemies in every situation.

     The referenced texts clearly support the understanding that the Roman army served not only to strengthen Rome’s empire but points to discipline and a philosophy of nationalism and discipline-based training (and sometimes, fear), as the primary building blocks of Rome’s empire.  The army could adapt to almost any situation.  This speaks to their flexibility when entering new lands or situations.  As long as the leadership could see and process the hurdles ahead, the troops could be made to succeed.  The speed at which they can make these changes is supported by Josephus’ description of the flexibility and lightning speed at which decisions in battle are made.  He states, “whereby it comes to pass, that what they do is done quickly, and what they suffer they bear with the greatest patience.” [9]  While the army functioned independently of the Roman government, it was undoubtedly an extension of Rome as an empire.  In fact, its productivity throughout history allowed it to wield the power to elevate someone to emperor if the ruling emperor didn’t respect the army’s position. 

[1] Tacitus, Annals 1.7 – Conditions of Service

[2] Tacitus, Annals 1.7 – Conditions of Service

[3] Josephus, Jewish War 3.5.1

[4] Josephus, Jewish War 3.5.2

[5] Josephus, Jewish War 3.5.3

[6] Josephus, Jewish War 3.5.7

[7] Vegetius, Military Epitome 1 9.4 – Training and Discipline

[8] Vegetius, Military Epitome 1 9.4 – Training and Discipline

[9] Josephus, Jewish War 3.5.2